Chapter 3
LAND USE AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Overview and Key Issues
This chapter provides an overview of land use and design considerations when
implementing commuter rail. The chapter describes the benefits of transit-oriented
development, and its ability to promote a pedestrian-friendly environment and promote
transit use. Besides increasing ridership, the benefits of transit-oriented development
include improved accessibility, compact land patterns, walkable environments, and reduced
auto use. Some fundamental principles and consideration for supporting transit-oriented
neighborhoods include:
- development potential
- transit-supportive intensities
- core uses
- street connectivity and design
- revitalization potential
- infill and redevelopment opportunities
- new growth areas
- feeder bus
- park-and-ride
Station area prototypes are provided at the end of this chapter to illustrate what
transit-supportive intensities look like and how transit-oriented principles can be
applied.
3.1 Overview
Higher densities, complementary land uses and pedestrian-oriented design are powerful determinants for encouraging transit use and reducing auto reliance (Cervero & Kockelman, 1996). Density, use and design are also useful tools for revitalizing existing neighborhoods and managing growth. This chapter elaborates further on the benefits in linking transit with land use. This chapter also identifies principles for determining the optimum location for future transit stations, and for designing surrounding uses in ways that support transit. A series of design case studies is provided to illustrate how these principles might be applied to certain settings. Figure 3-1 illustrates how transit-oriented development can bring together higher densities, diverse land uses and pedestrian-friendly designs to support ridership and reduce reliance on the car.
3.2 Benefits of Transit-Oriented Land Use and Design
A commuter rail system such as is proposed for Dane County requires significant public investment. In order to capitalize on and ensure its success, linking appropriate land uses with transit is critical. This linkage can best be accomplished with transit-oriented devel-opment (TOD) con-cepts. The concept is simple: moderate- and high-intensity housing and jobs should be emphasized within a 10-minute walking distance from transit stops. A number of studies have shown that population density is an important predic-tor of travel choice (Pushkarev & Zupan, 1977; Dunphy & Fisher, 1994). However, complementary land uses also play a pivotal role in inducing within neighborhood travel and reducing auto reliance (Ewing et. al, 1994; Frank & Pivo, 1994; Cervero & Kockelman, 1996).
Retail conveniences and civic amenities should be located proximate to the transit stop to bring neighborhood services near most homes and jobs, and to make riding transit a convenient routine. Lower-intensity uses such as large-lot residences, industrial parks and land-intensive schools should generally lay outside of this highly walkable precinct. This pattern makes it more convenient for people to ride transit than in single-use business parks or residential neighborhoods. In fact, one Los Angeles study showed that mixed-use conveniences increased transit use almost four percent over single-use districts (Cambridge Systematics, 1994).
Typical components of a transit-oriented neighborhood include a core of commercial and civic uses adjacent to the transit station, surrounded by higher-intensity residential and employment uses within walking distance of the station (approximately 2000 feet). See Figure 3-2.
The location, design, configuration, and mix of uses in a TOD provide an attractive alternative to conventional development by emphasizing a pedestrian-oriented environment and reinforcing the use of public transportation. Besides increasing ridership, the benefits of the transit-oriented development are many: improved accessibility, compact land patterns, walkable environments, and reduced auto use. Links between land use and transit result in an efficient pattern of development that supports the transit and reduces auto use from 10 to 25 percent (Kockelman, 1997; Cervero & Radisch, 1996; Fehr & Peers, 1992).
Even without transit service, a TOD's mix of complementary uses within a pedestrian-friendly district offers a useful strategy for making livable neighborhoods in both new growth and urbanized settings. Work-related trips constitute less than 40 percent of all households trips, while more than 60 percent of trips are devoted to shopping, school, socializing and other errands that might be internalized within a neighborhood and might be arrived at on foot (Fehr & Peers, 1992). To make walking to transit and other conveniences a reasonable option, complementary land uses must be brought together in the same neighborhood. See Figure 3-3.
TODs represent a land use strategy that seeks to resolve today's critical transportation issues by enhancing freedom of movement with real travel alternatives. Although focused on reinforcing rail transit, the mixed-use and walkable neighborhoods developed under these guidelines also support bus, biking, walking, and other non-auto modes. These alternatives to drive-alone auto use depend on creating comfortable pedestrian environments at the origin and destination of each trip. TODs seek to connect a rich mix of retail, parks, day care, civic services, and housing to transit stops with safe and attractive streets that include frequent trees and street-facing buildings.
Like land use, local street connections have a significant impact on the level of walking and transit uses within a neighborhood, even in suburban settings (Moudon et al, 1996). Standard suburban development patterns typically force all local shopping, recreation and school trips, as well as work trips, onto increasingly congested arterial streets. The TOD street system reduces traffic congestion on major streets by providing an interconnected street network that links most homes and jobs directly with transit and other common destinations.
TODs not only promote alternatives to auto use, but are also a formula to provide affordable communities. TODs are affordable for the diverse households of Dane County because a variety of housing types, at various costs and densities are encouraged in convenient locations. They are affordable to limited income households because they reduce auto reliance and reduce auto-related expenses, often eliminating the need to own additional cars. One west coast study has shown that per capita auto-use and auto-related expenses in transit-oriented neighborhoods were two-thirds of those in lower-density single-use neighborhoods (John Holzclaw, 1994).
TODs also help create a favorable environment for businesses. Businesses are choosing to locate in areas where their goods and workforce are free from gridlock, and where employees have access to livable neighborhoods and affordable housing. A survey of 59 employment centers found that nearby retail services correlated with high rates of mid-day travel on foot and to low rates of drive-alone commuting (Cervero, 1989).
TODs are also environmentally friendly because they use land efficiently, help to preserve open space, and reduce air pollution. Efficient development patterns provide a number of benefits, including reducing vehicle miles traveled, improving air quality, and minimizing urban sprawl. In urbanized areas, TOD concepts can also be applied to help revitalize existing neighborhoods.
3.3 The Dane County Land Use and Transportation Plan
The Regional Commuter Rail Feasibility Study incorporates and builds upon the land use goals within the Land Use and Transportation Plan that was adopted by the Dane County Regional Planning Commission. This Plan emphasizes maintaining and enhancing the high quality of life in Dane County as growth and new development continue, and recognizes opportunities for strengthening existing communities and neighborhoods. The Study seeks to promote a transit-oriented development pattern by encouraging compact and pedestrian-friendly land-uses along commuter rail routes, and by selecting rail alignments that capitalize on opportunities for transit-oriented development. This integration of land use and transit intends to enhance neighborhood access and livability, preserve agricultural lands and natural resources, and reinvigorate the Isthmus as the region's major employment and activity center. Specific principles identified in the Land Use and Transportation Study, which apply to this study include:
- Revitalize and maintain healthy urban areas by encouraging infill and redevelopment near transit.
- Protect the natural environment and community character, and minimize consumption of non-urban areas and agricultural lands by designing efficient and attractive communities.
- Employ land use strategies to encourage transit ridership.
- Reduce the number of auto trips and regional vehicle-miles traveled by creating opportunities to walk and bicycle to local destinations.
- Reduce air pollutant emissions and conserve limited energy resources.
- Provide diverse housing opportunities to meet a range of needs.
- Foster healthy and attractive communities, and maintain downtown Madison as the region's major employment and activity center.
Consistent with these principles, rail transit can pose a number of opportunities within the region, for both new and existing neighborhoods. See Figure 3-4.
This chapter translates these principles into criteria that will help decision-makers evaluate station area locations, land use plans and design features for their potential to create and maintain walkable, mixed-use districts with transit-supportive intensities. The chapter also illustrates these criteria through the use of land uses and design plans for six typical station areas or "prototypes."
3.4 Principles for Supporting Transit-Oriented Neighborhoods
Locational criteria and guidelines for future development are summarized within this section. The fundamental principles were applied in determining the proposed rail alignments and approximate station locations, to help assure that densities are consistent with RPC forecasts for the year 2020 and that ridership estimates are reasonable.
These criteria and guidelines are also noted so that future land use and transportation decisions continue to promote healthy communities, and satisfy regional land use goals. These criteria and guidelines apply to two basic contexts: within urbanized areas and within new growth areas. As has been the case in regions like Portland, Oregon, and Washington, D.C., transit stations can help reinvigorate existing neighborhoods and reduce pressures to grow at the region's edge. Within new growth areas, the rail corridor represents an important opportunity for encouraging development patterns that minimize reliance on the car, reduce pressures to consume valuable agricultural land, and offer the physical framework for livable communities.
3.4.1 Development Potential
Give special consideration to the transit-oriented development potential of lands within 2000 feet (a ten-minute walk) of stations.
Station Location: Destinations that support high transit ridership should be targeted, as well as existing urban centers where high intensities exist or will be fostered. Where intensities that support transit ridership do not already exist, it is important that future stations abut lands that can be developed or redeveloped. Parcels should be large enough or should be capable of being combined into transit-oriented districts that are a minimum of 40 acres -- inclusive of complementary existing uses - to create a coherent and walkable district capable of meeting regional goals.
Urban Design: Haphazard or disconnected development is rarely transit-supportive. It is crucial that street improvements for a pedestrian-friendly environment can feasibly be completed within a reasonable time frame, and that commercial conveniences adjacent to the transit station be supported.
3.4.2 Transit-Supportive Intensities
Secure high concentrations of housing and employment within walking distance of stations.
Station Location: Placing higher intensity uses within walking distance of most stations is essential for high transit ridership and to enhance the region's livability. For the full benefit of a commuter rail system to be realized, multi-modal commutes should be minimized as much as is possible. Transit use can be encouraged by bringing together moderate- and higher-density the residential types that are commonly dispersed throughout a community in an auto-reliant pattern (see Figure 3-5).
Providing direct pedestrian connections between housing, transit, and employment is the best method of achieving this goal. Adequate concentrations of housing and employment should be in place, or there should be adequate land and appropriate policies, to encourage transit-supportive intensities in the future. Generally, intensities for station areas should be consistent with the RPC 2020 Land Use and Transportation Plan, while acknowledging that new opportunities for transit-oriented development such as the ABS proposal have emerged since this Plan was drafted. If residents and employees are to be encouraged to walk to transit, then the walking environment must consist of attractive landscaping and buildings with entries and windows overlooking the street. Parking lots and blank walls should be avoided on routes leading to transit (see Figure 3-6).
Urban Design: The diversity of uses and bustle of activity found at the core of a vibrant and healthy station area requires the coming and going of pedestrians throughout the day. Higher intensity uses will contribute to this sense of vitality. Where feasible, mixed-use buildings with either office or residential above ground floor retail should be used as a way to establish a greater nucleus of activity and provide the physical building height that creates a "main street" or "boulevard" character.
3.4.3 Core Uses
Provide retail and civic uses adjacent to transit stations, which will serve transit users and the surrounding community.
Station Location: Travel by transit becomes even more convenient when it also meets other needs. At a minimum, convenience retail and day care operations should exist or be viable adjacent to stations. Some stations may also attract larger retail and employment uses. Care should be taken to avoid station locations where retail may not be viable, such as where local access is poor or where market demand is low because existing retail has been overbuilt. (To meet this objective, planning officials should also consider minimizing retail sites that might compete with "transit-oriented" locations -- generally sites within a one-mile radius of stations.) When located in association with transit stations, public facilities -- such as hospitals, libraries, post offices, gymnasiums and meeting halls -- help make community focal points and allow patrons to make trips that meet multiple needs.
Urban Design: Retail and civic uses can take advantage of a station's regional accessibility and location at the center of a walkable neighborhood. These uses will allow convenient shopping during lunchtime, evenings, and weekends. Even larger commercial uses (such as grocery stores, shopping malls and cinemas) can be accommodated if their design maintains active and attractive street connections to the transit station.
Community services and open space should also form a focal point adjacent to transit stations, and should provide a convenient location for services such as day care, libraries and adult education (see Figure 3-7).
3.4.4 Street Connectivity & Design
Provide direct street connections to transit stations, and the retail and community services that will be encouraged near them.
Station Location: Transit-oriented neighborhoods should have an interconnected street network that makes it easy to any destination within the neighborhood on foot. Direct routes should generally radiate from the station area core to minimize pedestrian distances and maximize pedestrian accessibility. Pedestrian routes should not rely on roads with high traffic speeds or on roads that are lined by blank walls or parking lots. Where direct street connections do not exist, the potential for such street connections should be secured.
Urban Design: The paths to transit stations should be safe, attractive and comfortable access for cars, pedestrians and bicyclists. Streets should be emphasized as primary routes by providing sidewalks, street trees, and lining streets with windows and entries. Pedestrian and bicycle trails connections should also be explored to offer direct routes free from vehicles. Blank walls or parking lots should not dominate a pedestrian route to a rail station. Building entries should face streets and parking should be located mid-block. Figure 3-8 illustrates that local streets should offer relatively direct routes to transit. Overly circuitous routes should be avoided.
3.4.5 Revitalization Potential
Give priority to station locations that exhibit high potential for revitalizing pedestrian-oriented districts, such as struggling main streets, downtowns, or commercial districts.
Station Location: Stations locations that support revitalization will not only improve access to revitalizing areas, but will also make these areas more attractive for potential residents and employers, thereby helping to leverage private investment.
Urban Design: Revitalization preserves investments in a community, in terms of public infrastructure, historic assets and human attachments. Furthermore, environments that experience both continuity and change over time often exhibit a richness and diversity of uses that is difficult or infeasible to include in solely new development. Revitalization strategies should preserve and build upon the existing physical and cultural assets of a community while fulfilling transit-oriented goals.
3.4.6 Infill and Redevelopment Opportunities
In locations where pedestrian-oriented districts are not already in place, target station locations along the rail corridor where there are large vacant parcels or where redevelopment of underutilized uses appears likely.
Station Location: Infill locations generally present fewer physical and procedural constraints, especially in locations where large parcels reduce the need to coordinate among numerous owners. It is important to consider large vacant parcels as well as places that have reached the end of their "economic cycle" (such as older shopping malls or industrial areas). These locations are ripe for redevelopment, and station area plans can be a catalyst for their transformation.
Urban Design: New uses should complement existing where redevelopment and infill opportunities occur adjacent to transit (See Figure 3-9). Not only can infill and redevelopment locations contain intensities that support transit, but they can also contain uses that meet the needs of the surrounding community. Retail conveniences, community facilities, local jobs and affordable housing can be important new components that create balanced neighborhoods and meet both regional and local goals. Infill and redevelopment opportunities are especially important where they can bridge between a transit station to nearby existing uses that would benefit from transit service.
3.4.7 New Growth Areas
In new growth areas, locate transit stations to maximize the area for transit-oriented development that surrounds them.
Station Location: Stations should sit at the center of what can become a pedestrian-oriented district. Stations should not occur at the intersection of arterials as these large roadways generally preclude the creation of contiguous, pedestrian-oriented neighborhoods. Environmental constraints and community separators can also limit the amount of land available for development and generally should be located at the edge of the 2000-foot walking radius from the transit station.
Urban Design: A mixed-use master plan should be developed for new growth area that sorts multiple issues out, such as the location and configuration of retail uses, the mix of residential uses and street connections. Existing assets should also be considered, such as historic structures and natural features.
3.4.8 Feeder Bus
Coordinate bus and rail systems to maximize efficiency of the transit network and land use pattern.
Station Location: The region's larger transit network should work with rail service to offer reliable service and minimize travel times. Potential feeder bus routes and timed transfer locations should be considered in concert with rail stations.
Urban Design: Station areas should accommodate bus staging areas where feeder bus service is provided. If frequent and reliable bus service can be established, communities should consider the potential for transit-oriented development along feeder bus routes.
3.4.9 Park and Ride
Avoid locating large park and ride lots within pedestrian-oriented station areas.
Station Location: Large surface parking lots are best suited adjacent to stations where pedestrian activity cannot be supported, such as stations surrounded by major highways or auto-dominated uses. These station areas are also ideal for large maintenance facilities.
Urban Design: To better accommodate park & ride, station areas may follow a pattern where one side of the tracks is auto-oriented while the other is pedestrian-oriented. Where park & ride must occur within pedestrian-oriented districts, it should be structured, and shared parking alternatives should be explored (e.g. cinemas make excellent evening use of park and ride parking without conflict).
3.5 Station Area Prototypes
The following prototypes illustrate how criteria and guidelines can be applied in different settings. Six station areas were chosen for their ability to represent the diverse settings in which transit-oriented development can occur. These ranged from infill and redevelopment in one of Madison's historic neighborhoods, to invigorating regional activity centers with pedestrian-oriented commercial uses, to guiding the growth of newly developing suburban areas.
The prototypes intend primarily to illustrate what transit-supportive intensities look like and how transit-oriented principles can be applied. While every effort was made to create prototypes rooted in reality and local goals, they in no way intend to substitute for the refined analysis, detailed design, and community input that are required to move concepts toward implementation.
3.5.1 "Urban Neighborhood" Station Area
This study of a typical urban neighborhood demonstrates how underutilized (primarily vacant industrial) sites can be redeveloped incrementally with uses that are transit-supportive and pedestrian-friendly. Urban neighborhoods can capitalize on their location close proximity to the State capitol with a mix of office, housing, shopping, and entertainment.
Redevelopment can also be used to transform existing strip commercial avenues into boulevards flanked by mixed-use buildings. New, higher intensity employment such as research and development are encouraged to fit in with remaining industries and take advantage of proximity to the commuter rail station. New multi-family structures with ground-floor storefronts can reinforce the traditional "main street" retail character that now exists south of the station.
3.5.2 "Urban Commercial" Station Area
Many commercial centers will reach the end of their "life cycle" in the next ten years and might be redeveloped or reshaped to better support transit and the needs of the surrounding community. In this conceptual plan containing two commercial centers, new development strengthens pedestrian connections and brings together complementary retail, residential and employment uses. An upgraded grocery and small park adjoins the station. The small shops that would typically face the grocery store's parking lot are reconfigured to face onto a "main street" that extends from the station and connects it with uses to the south. A pedestrian bridge across an eight-lane arterial leads further south, and extends the pedestrian environment to an existing shopping center. New multi-family housing takes advantage of the proximity of retail and transit, thereby enhancing the accessibility and independence of its residents, especially the elderly. East of the "main street," landscaped pedestrian path could link the recently constructed office and retail sites with the transit station.
3.5.3 "Public / Institutional" Station Area
Access to major public attractions can be enhanced by rail transit, however the connection between the transit station and the attraction must be convenient and attractive to be effective. In this conceptual plan, sporting events and exhibit halls are linked to the rail line along a pedestrian "promenade" that follows the shortest available route The promenade might contain shops, restaurants and other conveniences. A convenient link from the attraction to the station plaza is maintained with a pedestrian bridge over the major arterial. New office space can also take capitalize on nearby transit. These new uses could be partly supported by existing parking lots during non-event times, although the transit-supportive intensities proposed will also need to rely on parking structures. New transit service might also serve an existing community park, northwest of the station and existing hotels southwest of the station.
3.5.4 "Mid-Sized Community Center" Station Area
Because many towns initially grew around the railroad, their historic centers might be reinvigorated by new rail service. This conceptual plan demonstrates how significant growth can be accommodated without compromising this small town's Pedestrian improvements and new "infill" development repair and revitalize this community's Main Street. Senior housing, live/work incubator development, and a park and ride (placed near the station yet off the pedestrian routes) replace underutilized industrial sites. Major employers would be undisturbed. A riverfront trail system forms a complementary set of pedestrian routes and recreational opportunities.
3.5.5 "Small Community Center" Station Area
Smaller communities often have a small collection of conveniences proximate to open space and low-density development. This conceptual plan places the new transit station at the center of a small mixed-use center that builds on a historic "main street," which contains mixed-use buildings with ground-floor shops and an existing post office. The transit station, which features a small public plaza/park, could utilize existing barns to retain the local agrarian flavor. Immediately adjoining the station is a new shopping center and live/work units. New residential development is connected to the transit station via local streets. A pedestrian system that includes "main street" improvements, careful placement of new streets, parks, and natural areas links the community to commercial and recreational amenities. Workers at a an anticipated business park, just west of the study area, will be encouraged to use transit through the inclusion of pedestrian-oriented street improvements and frequent shuttle service.
3.5.6 "Suburban / Park and Ride" Station Area
In undeveloped areas that face the pressure of suburban expansion, transit-oriented development principles can guide new growth toward a sustainable pattern that reduces reliance on the car and sets boundaries to contain growth and conserve open space. A pedestrian-oriented environment can be created with tree-lined streets radiating from an activity node that contains day-to-day needs and amenities adjacent to transit service. In this conceptual plan, the street network is aligned to offer direct pedestrian connections to where the transit station would be located. The plan also illustrates how street alignments, parks and open space can capitalize on key views and other natural amenities. Denser housing and employment centers are placed close to the transit station, with single-family tracts still within walking distance of roughly one quarter to one half mile. Sensitive open space, as seen to the north, would help define an edge to growth. A park and ride lot is situated to avoid pedestrian routes to the station, while remaining proximate to the transit station and the highway.
Chapter 4
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